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Engineering and Technology (Apple, Nygren, Williams, transfer their learning to new contexts, and demonstrate
& Litynski 2002), without the requisite level of their problem-solving skills” (Hanson, 2009).
transferable knowledge, problem solving is elevated to
research — a much more difficult challenge. Problem Solving in Curricula
While much of the scholarship in the Faculty Guidebook The Problem Solving Methodology
is as pertinent to the topic of problem solving as it is to
learning, several modules stand out as addressing problem Foundations of Problem Solving (Myrvaagnes, Brooks,
solving and the teaching of problem solving skills from Carroll, Smith, & Wolf, 1999) took the problem solving
a more global perspective. These include Overview of content from Learning Through Problem Solving and
Problem Solving (Morgan & Williams, 2007), Problem- expanded it, including profiles (problem solvers, systems
Based Learning (Duncan-Hewitt, 2007), Developing thinker, mathematical thinker, learner, and self-grower)
Working Expertise (Level 4 Knowledge) (Nygren, 2007), as well as methodologies (10 in addition to the Problem
and Distinguishing Between Problem Solving, Design Solving Methodology). The goal of the additional
and Research (Cordon & Williams, 2007). content was to support growth in quantitative reasoning
as well as problem solving. By this time, the Problem
Activity Design and Problem Solving Solving Methodology (as published in Foundations of
Problem Solving) was the 10-step version used today
Problem solving is not only the process of applying and shown in Figure 1.
knowledge gained through learning; it is a way of
demonstrating understanding at the level of application/ The Student Success Toolbox (Pacific Crest, 2011)
problem. That’s why a challenge to solve problems is an offers numerous tools to support problem solving in the
important part of a high-quality learning activity (and classroom, both for quantitative as well as qualitative
thus the design of learning activities or curricula). Step contexts. The Problem Solving Methodology is well-
17 in the Activity Design Template (see the Activity represented among the set of resources and tools:
Design section; Pacific Crest, 2008) is, “Problems to be
addressed.” This step is explained in Designing Process- Holistic Rubric for Problem Solving
Oriented Guided-Inquiry Activities:
Problem Solving Methodology (see Figure 2)
These problems present new situations that
require students to transfer, synthesize, and Example of the Problem Solving Methodology
integrate what they have learned. The purpose
is to move them to the problem-solving level Applying the Problem Solving Methodology (blank
of knowledge. The problems often have a real- form)
world context, contain superfluous or missing
information, have multiple parts, do not contain Addressing & Avoiding Errors form
overt clues about the concepts needed to arrive
at a solution, and may not have a right answer. Profile of a Strong Problem Solver
(Hanson, 2007)
Learning Skills for Problem Solving
For this reason, the vast majority of Process Education
curricula offer problems to solve, learning challenges, The Problem Solving Methodology appears in Chapter
or opportunities to demonstrate one’s understanding. 5 of Foundations of Learning (Redfield & Hurley
Examples include, Lawrence, 2009), “Problem Solving Skills.” This
chapter offers many of the tools also found in the
Learning to Learn: Becoming a Self-Grower: Student Success Toolbox (Pacific Crest, 2011), but they
Problems to solve are presented at the end of every are contextualized with student examples and models.
learning experience (Apple, Morgan, & Hintze, Even as students see the Problem Solving Methodology
2013). at work, they are challenged to identify a problem in
their own life (personal or academic) and to solve
Quantitative Reasoning and Problem Solving: it by applying the methodology. Sample problems
Problem solving projects are presented for each in Foundations of Learning range from the purely
chapter (Ellis, Apple, Watts, Hintze, Teeguarden, qualitative (needing to meet someone, being unsure
Cappetta, & Burke, 2014). of the exact location of the agreed meeting place, and
being unable to reach the other person by phone) to
Foundations of Chemistry: Many activities contain strongly quantitative problems (three students sharing
problems that, “require learners to synthesize ideas, a two-bedroom apartment and needing to determine
equitable ways to assign rooms and split the rent).
Experience 6, “Methodologies: Unlocking Process
Knowledge” in Learning to Learn: Becoming a Self-
International Journal of Process Education (February 2016, Volume 8 Issue 1) 121
